Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language Learning
Table of contentsIntroduction: Spoken Language
Differences between Spoken and written language
Teaching the spoken Language
Programme Implementation
Research Findings on speaking Language
Bibliography
Introduction: spoken language
Differences between spoken and written language
Teaching the spoken language
An applied linguistic programme needs to deal with a number of key issues: real world problems arising from within the domain of study; informing underlying theories; potentially relevant empirical evidence; the design, implementation and findings of relevant research; issues of intervention in terms of planning, design, implementation and evaluation. In the case of the study of speaking, this involves a number of subtopics. Firstly, in line with the above, the understanding of speech is informed by an awareness of three major defining features: generic discourse patterns and associated lexico-grammatical characteristics; knowledge of studies of spoken ability compared with written ability, including understanding of characteristics of speech such as fluency/disfluency features; and knowledge about the individual and social psychology of speech processing.
Within an applied linguistic or teacher education programme, the study of speech also needs to develop an understanding of pedagogical options in promoting oral abilities. This implies developing in students a critical awareness of the range of approaches for the teaching of speaking, from the more controlled, teacher-centred approaches that are available, to the more unscripted, exploratory approaches that are being developed, in which the teacher’s role is more that of setting challenges, facilitating work, monitoring progress, and providing formative and where necessary summative feedback.
A particularly important focus concerns the impact of oral tasks in channelling students towards various aspects of spoken language and their use, notably: distinct discourse patterns; distinct sets of lexico-grammatical features; distinct interaction patterns; different modes of processing, encouraging students to concentrate as needed on the fluency, accuracy or complexity of their speech.
Study of the testing of speech highlights more precisely the kinds of oral competencies that educational programmes aim to develop, how they are defined, and the design of procedures to evaluate them. This provides a background for studying the classroom use of tasks within and across lesson cycles, and the study of different options for the teacher to provide feedback on students.
A final theme concerns the nature and shape of the oral language curriculum within the context both of first and second language classrooms. Overall then the syllabus moves from theoretical, descriptive issues concerning the language, psychology and sociology of speech, through research into task design and test design, to the implementation of activities and the design of programmes.
Programme implementation
In teaching this area, the focus is on a small number of key objectives, principally to develop a critical understanding: of theories of speech and speech processing; of empirical studies into the nature of speech and speech processing; of the principles underlying the design of relevant pedagogical materials and tests; of empirical studies into the functioning of pedagogical materials and tests; of principles underlying - and empirical studies into - the use of tasks within educational contexts; and principles underlying the provision of oral language work within classroom contexts. These objectives are currently best achieved through a combination of relevant learning activities: critical reading and discussion of theoretical, descriptive and empirical studies; lecture input; tasks – both in and out of class – to structure the exploration of oral data and of relevant categories of analysis through the study of audio and video recordings and of transcript data; tasks to engage exploration of oral teaching and testing materials through their implementation, as well as through the recording, analysis and evaluation of participant data; and hands-on surveys of a range of sample course books, and the study of illustrative syllabuses and curricula, to understand and evaluate current assumptions about the role of speaking within the curriculum, along with current approaches to implementing those assumptions.
Formative assessment is generally effectively based on a combination of in-class feedback during discussion phases occurring around lectures; lecturer’s monitoring of on-task analysis activities; post-task reporting and discussion; in-class oral reports and discussion of specific readings. Summative assessment usually takes the form of an assignment, involving the student in addressing issues in one or more of the following: the design, implementation or development of materials, syllabus design and evaluation, and the assessment of oral language skills. Assessment also typically requires an argued position on the alternative options in the selected aspect of the field for a pedagogical context of the student’s choice.
Research finding on Speaking
Additional language instruction formerly consisted of students’ memorizing dialogues and practising grammar drills. Current research supports a model known as ‘communicative competence’. Although students must learn the grammar and vocabulary, these alone do not lead to fluency. Since natural language is unpredictable and speakers arrive at meaning through active communication, students must be taught how to manage real conversation—how to start and end conversations, how to respond appropriately, and how to express their beliefs, opinions and feelings. Students need to learn what is culturally appropriate and how language varies depending on the situations; they may need to learn about people involved, their moods, and other social and cultural factors. A fluent speaker needs to know how to link utterances together to create clear and effective discourse. Students must also learn how to manage conversations when there are communication breakdowns. These modern views caused changes in the teaching of speaking. Students should engage in ‘unscripted’ or spontaneous language since that is the nature of usual speaking practices. The teacher’s role is to provide language patterns that are needed, guide students in how to form natural language, and then to create opportunities for practice. Teachers must provide judicious coaching and encouragement so that students will actively practice speaking.
In the classroom
When teaching speaking, the following instructional strategies
• Present to students the linguistic and vocabulary patterns
• Teach students speech acts (to agree/disagree, apologize,
• Provide controlled practice so students can feel comfortable
• Have students use the patterns in natural language situations
• Allow the students to make errors, but also provide feedback
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